Research

Markus' research focuses on the self and on how people are shaped by—and can shape—their many cultures, including gender, race, ethnicity, religion, occupation, nation or region of origin, social class, and more. Her recent work investigates how culture matters for public health, economic development, sustainability, and education. It includes theoretical and empirical work on what culture is, how it works, and how to change it.

Cultural Influences on Pandemic Response

This line of research examines how "cultural defaults" influenced how societies responded to and coped with the pandemic, affecting public health outcomes and mortality rates. We suggest the crucial role of empirical work in cultural psychology and the value of using culturally attuned strategies to understand and improve public health.

Selected Publications and Media:

Markus, H. R., Tsai, J. L., Uchida, Y., Maitreyi, A., Yang, A. M. (2025). How U.S. 'cultural defaults' challenge American public health and what public health officers can do about it. Social Science & Medicine: Population Health.

Markus, H. R., Tsai, J. L., Uchida, Y., Yang, A. M., & Maitreyi, A. (2024). Cultural defaults in the time of COVID: Lessons for the future. Psychological Science in the Public Interest.

Commentaries:

Cody, S. H. (2024). COVID and cultural defaults: A public health officer's personal perspective. Psychological Science in the Public Interest.

Kawachi, I. (2024). Culture as a social determinant of health. Psychological Science in the Public Interest.

Markus, H. R., Tsai, J. L., Uchida, Y., Yang, A. M., & Maitreyi, A. (2024). Cultural psychology in the interest of public health. Psychological Science in the Public Interest.

Stanford Report. (2025, February 25). New paper examines how cultural differences impacted COVID mortality rates.

Association for Psychological Science. (2024, December 19). Cultural differences account for starkly different responses to COVID-19.

Thomas, C. C., Schwalbe, M. C., Garcia, M., & Cohen, G. L., Markus, H. R. (2024). Mostly surviving, others thriving: Inequality in loss and coping during the pandemic. Journal of the Russell Sage Foundation.

Birnbaum, H. J., Dittman, A. G., Stephens, N. M., Reinhart, E. C., Carey, R. M., & Markus, H. R. (2023). Personal harm from the COVID-19 pandemic predicts advocacy for equality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.

Culture Change

In this work, we explore the science of intentional culture change, emphasizing the need for understanding and addressing cultural clashes to foster change in different social and organizational contexts.

Selected Publications and Media:

Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., Hetey, R. C., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2024). We built this culture (so we can change it): Seven principles for intentional culture change. American Psychologist.

Hetey, R., Hamedani, M., Markus, H.R. & Eberhardt, J. (2024). “When the cruiser lights come on”: Using the science of bias and culture to combat racial disparities in policing. Daedalus.

Madan, S., Nanakdewa, K., Savani, K., & Markus, H. R. (2021, October 13). Research: What makes employees feel empowered to speak up? Harvard Business Review.

Hamedani, M. G., & Markus H. R. (2019). Understanding culture clashes and catalyzing change: A culture cycle approach. Frontiers in Psychology.

Markus, H. R., & Hamedani, M. G. (2019). People are culturally-shaped shapers: The psychological science of culture and culture change. In S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of Cultural Psychology (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Markus, H. R., & Conner, A. C. (2014). Clash! How to thrive in a multicultural world. Penguin (Hudson Street Press).

Models of Self and Agency

This work explores how culture shapes mind and behavior, and investigates cultures as multi-layered cycles that foster different forms of agency. We examine how the clash of independent and interdependent forms of agency and their supporting culture cycles fuels both global hostilities and daily tensions between regions, races, classes, religions and organizations.

Selected Publications and Media:

Markus, H. R. (2017). American = Independent? Perspectives on Psychological Science.

Riemer, H., Shavitt, S., Koo, M., & Markus, H. R., (2014). Preferences don't have to be personal: Expanding attitude theorizing with a cross-cultural perspective. Psychological Review.

Markus, H. R., & Conner, A. C. (2014). Clash! How to thrive in a multicultural world. Penguin (Hudson Street Press).

Markus, H. R., & Conner, A. C. (2011). The culture cycle. Edge.

Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S. K. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science.

Adams, G., & Markus, H. R. (2002). Culture as patterns: An alternative approach to the problem of reification. Culture and Psychology.

Fiske, A., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2. McGraw-Hill.

Markus, H. R., Mullally, P. R., & Kitayama, S. (1997). Selfways: Diversity in modes of cultural participation. In U. Neisser & D. A. Jopling (Eds.), The conceptual self in context: Culture, experience, self-understanding. Cambridge University Press.

Oyserman, D. & Markus, H. R. (1993). The sociocultural self. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self, Vol 4: The self in social perspective. Erlbaum.

Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review.

Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist.

Culture, Agency, and Motivation

We examine how cultural contexts (including region of the world and social class within the U.S.) shape motivation and achievement. This research highlights how the "interdependent" models of agency common in many contexts differ from the default and well-researched and culturally inscribed "independent" models of agency.

Selected Publications and Media:

Li, X., Han, M., Cohen, G. L., & Markus, H. R. (2021). Passion matters but not equally everywhere: Predicting achievement from interest, enjoyment, and efficacy in 59 societies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Markus, H. R. (2016). What moves people to action? Culture and motivation. Current Opinion in Psychology.

Fu, A. S., & Markus, H. R. (2014). My mother and me: Why tiger mothers motivate Asian Americans but not European Americans. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

Stephens, N. M., Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Nelson, J. E. (2015). Feeling at home in college: Fortifying school-relevant selves to reduce social class disparities in higher education: The importance of fit and empowerment. Social Issues and Policy Review.

Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., & Fu, A. S. (2013). In the land of the free, interdependent action undermines motivation. Psychological Science.

Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C. S., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How the American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Plaut, V., & Markus, H. (2005). The “inside” story: A cultural-historical analysis of how to be smart and motivated, American style. In A. Eliot & C. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of culture and motivation. Guilford Press.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2003). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. In V. Murphy-Berman & J. Berman (Eds.),The 49th Annual Nebraska symposium on motivation: Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on self. University of Nebraska Press.

Culture and Choice

These studies explore the cultural construction and perception of "choice," examining how its meaning, salience, and link to agency differs across societies and social classes within the U.S. We analyze the individual and societal consequences of prioritizing choice.

Selected Publications and Media:

Nanakdewa, K., Madan, S., Savani, K, & Markus, H. R. (2021). The salience of choice fuels independence: Implications for self-perception, cognition, and behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Madan, S. Nanakdewa, K. Savani, K., & Markus, H. R. (2020). The paradoxical consequences of choice: Often good for the individual, perhaps less so for society? Current Directions in Psychological Science.

Adams, G., Estrada-Villalta, S., Sullivan, D., & Markus, H. R. (2019). The psychology of neoliberalism and the neoliberalism of psychology. Journal of Social Issues.

Savani, K., Stephens, N., & Markus, H.R. (2011). The unanticipated interpersonal and societal consequences of choice: Victim-blaming and reduced support for the public good. Psychological Science.

Savani, K., Markus, H. R., Naidu, N. V. R., Kumar, S., & Berlia, N. (2010). What counts as a choice? U.S. Americans are more likely than Indians to construe actions as choices. Psychological Science.

Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2011). When choice does not equal freedom: A Sociocultural analysis of agency in working-class contexts. Personality and Social Psychology Science.

Markus, H. R., & Schwartz, B. (2010). Does choice mean freedom and well-being? Journal of Consumer Psychology.

Stephens, N., Hamedani, M., Markus, H., Bergsieker, H. B., & Eloul, L. (2009). Why did they “choose” to stay? Perspectives of Hurricane Katrina observers and survivors. Psychological Science.

Savani, K., Markus, H., & Conner A. L. (2008). Let your preference be your guide? Preferences and choices are more tightly linked for North Americans than for Indians. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Kitayama, S., Snibbe, A. C., Markus, H. R., & Suzuki, T. (2004). Is there any "free" choice?: Self and dissonance in two cultures. Psychological Science.

Kim, H., & Markus, H. R. (1999). Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity? A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Culture and Economic Development

We examine the influence of culturally-informed approaches and interventions on international development, welfare policy, cash transfers, and socioeconomic mobility.

Selected Publications and Media:

Thomas, C. C., Premand, P., Bossuroy, T., Soumaila, A., S., Markus, H. R., & Walton, G. (in press). How culturally wise psychological interventions can help reduce poverty. PNAS.

Thomas, C. C., & Markus, H. R. (2023). Enculturating the science of international development: Beyond the WEIRD independent paradigm. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology.

Thomas, C. C., Walton, G. M., Reinhart, E., Markus, H. R. (2023). Mitigating welfare-related prejudice and partisanship among U.S. conservatives with moral reframing of a universal basic income policy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.

Thomas, C., Otis, N., Abraham, J. R., Markus, H. R., & Walton, G. M. (2020). Toward a science of delivering aid with dignity: Experimental evidence and local forecasts from Kenya. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Grusky, D., Hall, P. A., & Markus, H. R. (2019). The rise of opportunity markets: How did it happen & what can we do? Daedalus.

Adams, G., Estrada-Villalta, S., Sullivan, D., & Markus, H. R. (2019). The psychology of neoliberalism and the neoliberalism of psychology. Journal of Social Issues.

Acs, G., Maitreyi, A., Conner, A. L., Markus, H. R., Patel, N., Lyons-Padilla, S. & Eberhardt, J. L. (2018). Measuring mobility from poverty. Washington, DC: US Partnership on Mobility from Poverty.

SPARQtools. Measuring mobility (A toolkit for researchers and practitioners).

Inequality and Social Class

This line of work explores how the dynamics of race, social class, and cultural context contribute to inequality.

Selected Publications and Media:

Reinhart, E. C., Carey, R. M., & Markus, H. R. (2024). Who feels they contribute to U.S. society? Helping behaviors and social class disparities in perceived contributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Santoro, E., & Markus, H. R. (2023). Listening to bridge social divides. Current Opinion in Psychology.

Goudeau, S., Stephens, N.C., Markus, H. R., Darnon, C., Croizet, J.-C., & Cimpian, A. (2024). What causes social class disparities in education? The role of the mismatches between academic contexts and working-class socialization contexts and how the effects of these mismatches are explained. Psychological Review.

Goudeau, S., Sanrey, C., Autin, F., Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., Croizet, J.-C., & Cimpian, A. (2023). Unequal opportunities from the start: Socioeconomic disparities in classroom participation in preschool. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.

Ridgeway, C. L., & Markus, H. R. (2023). The significance of status: What it is and how it shapes inequality. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences.

Miyamoto, Y., Yoo, J., Levine, C. S., Park, J., Boylan, J. M., Sims, T., Markus, H. R., Kitayama, S., Kawakami, N., Karasawa, M., Coe, C. L., Love, G. D., & Ryff, C. D. (2018). Culture and social hierarchy: Self- and other-oriented correlates of socioeconomic status across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Markus, H. R., & Stephens, N. M. (2017). Editorial overview: Inequality and social class: The psychological and behavioral consequences of inequality and social class: A theoretical integration. Current Opinion in Psychology.

Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, L. T. (2014). Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality. Annual Review of Psychology.

Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Fryberg, S. A. (2012). Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior. Psychological Review.

Culture and Education

We examine culturally-informed approaches to education and social policy to address racial and socioeconomic disparities and enhance well-being.

Selected Publications and Media:

Brady, L., Wang, C., Griffiths, C., Yang, J. & Markus, H.R. (2024). A leadership-level culture cycle intervention changes teachers’ culturally inclusive beliefs and practices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.

Rappleye, J., Komatsu, H., Yukiko, U., Tsai, J. and Markus, H. (2023). The OECD’s well-being 2030 agenda: How PISA 2018’s affective turn gets lost in translation. Comparative Education.

Rappleye, J., Komatsu, H., Uchida, Y., Krys, K., & Markus, H. R. (2020). ‘Better policies for better lives’?: Constructive critique of the OECD’s (mis)measure of student well-being. Journal of Education Policy.

Brady, L., Fryberg, S., Markus, H. R., Griffiths, C., Yang, J., Rodriquez, P. (2020, November 5). Families not engaging with school? Rethink the problem. Education Week.

Hamedani, M., Markus H. R., & Moya, P. (2020, May 14). Pushing back against racism and xenophobia on campuses. Inside Higher Ed.

Markus, H. (2019, May). What should free speech mean in college?: Listen and learn. Stanford Magazine.

Cultural Determinants of Health

This work examines how cultures shape health behaviors and outcomes, revealing surprising patterns, for instance, that negative affect may not always be bad for health and focusing on personal responsibility may not always be good for health. We explore how social factors, such as social status and self-presentation impact health, and the varied paths to well-being.

Selected Publications and Media:

Louis, K., Crum, A. J., Markus, H. R. (2023). Negative consequences of self-presentation on disclosure of health information: A catch-22 for Black patients? Social Science and Medicine.

Turnwald, B. P., Handley-Miner, I. J., Samuels, E. A., Markus, H. R., & Crum, A.J. (2021). Nutritional analysis of food and beverages in top-grossing U.S. movies: 1994-2018. JAMA Internal Medicine.

Hook, C., & Markus, H. R. (2020). Health in the U.S.: Are appeals to choice and personal responsibility making Americans sick? Perspectives on Psychological Science.

Conner, A. L., Boles, D. Z. Markus, H. R., Eberhardt, J. L., & Crum, A. J. (2019). Americans’ health mindsets: Content, cultural patterning, and associations with physical and mental health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine.

Using data from National Longitudinal Surverys of Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS) and Japan (MIDJA):

Levine, C., Miyamoto, Y., Markus, H. R., Boylan, J., Park, J., Kitayama, S., Karasawa, M., Kawakami, N., Coe, C., Love, G., & Ryff, C. (2016). Culture and healthy eating: The role of independence and interdependence in the United States and Japan. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

Kitayama, S., Park, J., Boylan, J., Miyamoto, Y., Levine, C. S, Markus, H R., Karasawa, M., Coe, C., Kawakami, N., Love, G. & Ryff, C. (2015). Expression of anger and ill health in two cultures: An examination of inflammation and cardiovascular risk. Psychological Science.

Curhan, K. B., Sims, T., Markus, H. R., Kitayama, S., Karasawa, M., Kawakami, N., … Ryff, C. (2014). Just how bad negative affect is for your health depends on culture. Psychological Science.

Curhan, K., Levine, C. S., Markus, H. R.,Kitayama, S., Park, J., Karasawa, M … Ryff, C. D. (2014). Subjective and objective hierarchies and their relations to psychological well-being: A U.S./Japan comparison. Social and Personality Psychology Science.

Ryff, C. D., Love, G. D., Miyamoto, Y., Markus, H. R., Curhan, K. B., Kitayama, S., Park, J., Kawakami, N., Kan, C., & Karasawa, M. (2014). Culture and the promotion of well-being: Understanding varieties of attunement to the surrounding context. In G. A. Fava & C. Ruini (Eds.), Increasing psychological well-being in clinical and education settings: Interventions and cultural contexts. Springer.

Miyamoto, Y., Boylan, J. M., Coe, C. L., Curhan, K. B., Levine, C. S., Markus, H. R., Park, J., Kitayama, S., Kawakami, N., Karasawa, M., Love, G. D., & Ryff, C. D. (2013). Negative emotions predict elevated interleukin-6 in the United States but not in Japan. Brain, Behavior and Immunity.

Kitayama, S., Karasawa, M., Curhan, K., Ryff, C., & Markus, H. (2010). Independence and interdependence predict health and well-being: Divergent patterns in the United States and Japan. Frontiers in Psychology.

Race and Ethnicity

This line of research considers what race and ethnicity are, how they work, and why achieving a just society requires taking account of them.

Selected Publications and Media:

Lee, C., Gligorić, K., Pratyusha, R.K., Harrington, M., Durmus, E., Sanchez, K.L., San, N., Tse, D., Zhao, X., Hamedani, M., Markus, H. R., Jurafsky, D. & Eberhardt, J. (2024). People who share encounters with racism are silenced online by humans and machines, but a guideline-reframing intervention holds promise. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Lyons-Padilla, S., Markus, H.,R., Monk, A., Radhakrishna, S., Shah, R., Dodson, D., & Eberhardt, J. (2019). Race influences professional investors’ financial decisions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.

Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Taylor, V. J. (2015). ‘Two souls, two thoughts’, two self-schemas: Positive consequences of double consciousness for self-construal and academic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Townsend, S.M., Fryberg, S. A., Wilkins, C. L., & Markus, H. R. (2012). Being mixed: Who claims a biracial identity? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology.

Moya, P., & Markus, H. R. (2010). Doing race: An introduction. In H. Markus & P. Moya (Eds.), Doing race: 21 essays for the 21st century. W. W. Norton & Co.

Markus, H. R. (2010). Who am I?: Race, ethnicity and identity. In H. Markus & P. Moya (Eds.), Doing race: 21 essays for the 21st century. W. W. Norton & Co.

Townsend, S. Markus, H. & Bergsieker, H. (2009). My choice, your categories: The denial of multiracial identities. Journal of Social Issues.

Markus, H. (2008). Pride, prejudice, and ambivalence: Toward a unified theory of race and ethnicity. American Psychologist.

Fryberg, S., Markus, H. R., Oyserman, D., & Stone, J. (2008). Of warrior chiefs and Indian princesses: The psychological consequences of American Indian mascots. Basic and Applied Social Psychology.

Markus, H. R. (2008). Identity matters: Ethnicity, race, and the American dream. In R. Shweder, M. Minow & H. R. Markus (Eds.), Just schools: Pursuing equal education in societies of difference. Russell Sage Foundation.

Markus, H. R., Steele, C. M., & Steele, D. M. (2000). Colorblindness as a barrier to inclusion: Assimilation and nonimmigrant minorities. Daedalus.

SPARQtools. RaceWorks (A toolkit for researchers and practitioners to learn about race and the culture cycle).

Gender

These studies examine gender dynamics, investigating "masculine defaults" in the workplace and society, topics like "mansplaining," and the impact of gender on self-esteem, self-concept, and thought processes.

Selected Publications and Media:

Santoro, E., & Markus, H. R. (2024). Is mansplaining gendered? The effects of unsolicited, generic, and prescriptive advice on U.S. women. Psychological Science.

Cheryan, S., & Markus, H. R. (2022, October 21). Rooting out the masculine defaults in your workplace. Harvard Business Review.

Cheryan, S., & Markus, H. R. (2020). Masculine defaults: Identifying and mitigating hidden cultural biases. Psychological Review.

Josephs, R. A., Markus, H., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992). Gender and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Markus, H. R. & Oyserman, D. (1989). Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept. In M. Crawford & M. Gentry (Eds.), Gender and thought. Springer-Verlag.

Markus, H., Crane, M., Bernstein, S., & Siladi, M. (1982). Self-schemas and gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Cultural Influences on Emotion

These studies examine the profound influence of culture on emotion, exploring variations in its expression, experience, and link to well-being across societies such as the U.S. and Japan. We investigate how cultural defaults and models of agency shape preferences, attitudes, and responses to global events like the COVID pandemic.

Selected Publications and Media:

Markus, H. R., Tsai, J. L., Uchida, Y., Yang, A. M., & Maitreyi, A. (2024). Cultural defaults in the time of COVID: Lessons for the future. Psychological Science in the Public Interest.

Clobert, M., Sims, T. L., Yoo, J., Miyamoto, Y., Markus, H. R., Karasawa, M., & Levine, C. S. (2020). Feeling excited or taking a bath: Do distinct pathways underlie the positive affect-health link in the U.S. and Japan? Emotion.

Riemer, H., Shavitt, S., Koo, M., & Markus, H. R., (2014). Preferences don’t have to be personal: Expanding attitude theorizing with a cross-cultural perspective. Psychological Review.

Park, J., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Coe, C. L., Miyamoto, Y., Karasawa, M… Ryff, C. D. (2013). Social status and anger expression: The cultural moderation hypothesis. Emotion.

Uchida, Y., Townsend, S., & Markus, H. R. (2009). Emotions as within or between people: Cultural variation in lay theories of emotion expression and inference. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Kurokawa, M. (2000). Culture, emotion and well-being: Good feelings in Japan and the United States. Emotion and Motivation.

Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (Eds.) (1994). Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence. American Psychological Association.

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